Interpretation of music in Zambia: texts in context introduction

Interpretation of music in Zambia: texts in context introduction

Interpretation of music in Zambia: texts in context, introduction.

Fighting with songs  introduction

What is the role of song and song text in a ritual?
How do new and existing song texts relate to the progress of a ritual?
What happens in detail at an Ipupo?

This article is the introduction to a series of articles, called Fighting with songs. The series provides a detailed description of a particular Ipupo held in 1987 and the interpretation of the song texts brought there. We describe the course of the public part of this Ipupo. Each of the 113 song texts is interpreted within its context. We follow how text and song evolve as the ritual progresses. And we develop some understanding of the arts of bringing new and existing song texts at and for the occasion.
The case also provides the opportunity to give detailed information about music, dance, mediumship and rituals in context.

In this introductory article, we present information about Ipupo in the 1980s, this particular Ipupo, its main actors and the tensions that existed between ing’omba and shing’anga, mourning and healing rituals, and Ciwila and Mwami possession.

The Ipupo in the 1980s

Interpretation of music in Zambia: texts in context, introduction. See the article Rituals of mourning for a general description of the Ipupo.

In the 1980s, the Ipupo had two purposes. Many believed it marked the end of the mourning period with a large offering to the spirit of the deceased. And, to have the surviving relatives make a transition to (normal) life during the night, from kulila to kwangala, by rounding off the Ipupo with social dances. We can discern three phases in this type of Ipupo. Kulila by the relatives, ritual friends and mediums. The uplifting of the relatives by mediums and visitors. And, the celebration of life (kwangala) by the normal people.
In the 1980s, however, people increasingly organised Ipupo to solve ishamo in the family, often a long time after the death of the person for whom they organised the Ipupo. Many Ipupo did not finish with icila dancing by normal people (non-mediums). At those Ipupo, like at a Cibombe, there were mediums dancing up to dawn. In the period in which this particular Ipupo took place, the question was whether Ipupo would open up to kucitila songs and behaviour as well.

The course of events at an Ipupo

Interpretation of music in Zambia: texts in context, introduction. An Ipupo is a sequence of songs. A medium starts a song consisting of a solo and a chorus part. A helper takes over the solo part and the audience/chorus takes over the chorus part. Then the three drums join in one after the other. After some time the starter of the song starts dancing to this musical ensemble. A successful song lasts 10 to 15 minutes. However, there are also very short songs and songs that the chorus does not take over which makes them only last a short while.
At an Ipupo, and also at a Cibombe, the lesser dancers start the ritual. These are the possessed who are not yet in kumfwana with their spirits. This is their chance to start a song and then dance to their own song. At a later stage of the night, this will be much more difficult. Then, they have to compete for the chorus’ attention with well-known mediums. This arrangement also allows for a slow start of the heating of the ritual.

The Ipupo at banaNshimbi‘s

Interpretation of music in Zambia: texts in context, introduction. The Ipupo was held on 5 December and the night of 5 to 6 December, 1987. BanaNshimbi and her relatives organised it for her deceased mother. Her mother had asked for it in dreams.
The major protagonists at this ritual were banaNshimbi, the owner of the ritual, Munteta Chalebaila, member of her cult group, Chalebaila, the famous shing’anga who wanted to make a point at this Ipupo and Kansenkele, the ing’omba who was invited by banaNshimbi’s family to sing at the Ipupo. The three leading mediums Kamimbya, Chalebaila and Kansenkele brought 97 out of the 113 songs sung at this Ipupo. The sixteen songs brought by others all belong to the first twenty songs. BanaNshimbi, though a very good starter and dancer herself, was supposed not to dance. Being the owner of the dead, she was to be uplifted by the singing and dancing of those who helped in the ritual.

Major protagonists at this Ipupo
Munteta Chalebaila

Munteta Chalebaila was possessed by three spirits, the most important of which was Kamimbya, Swallow. This name was also his possession name. His type of possession was Bayambo, for hunting, healing and dancing. It was rare in Chibale but common in the Lamba, Lima and Lenje regions.

Chalebaila

Munteta was the son of one of the two most famous shing’anga of Chibale at that moment, Salati Mukoti, better known under his possession name Chalebaila – the name of the Twa spirit that healed through him – who in 1976 had come to Chibale from the Lima region to heal.

BanaNshimbi

When Munteta got struck by the spirits the first time, he was treated by the other famous shing’anga of the area. This was banaNshimbi, the organiser of this Ipupo, also known under her possession name bamukaNdubeni. Ndubeni was the name of the Lima chief whose spirit healed through her. A patient was the child (mwana) of the shing’anga. Therefore, in a way, Munteta was also the child of bamukaNdubeni.

Kansenkele

Kansenkele was one of the few mediums in the area who, like Chalebaila, was generally known under his possession name. His human name was Shemu Mambwe. He was possessed by two Ciwila spirits: of his mother and of his sister-in-law. Kansenkele was much sought after by people who wanted to organise an Ipupo. He, or in the possession cult terminology: his spirits, attracted many people. They brought many, always new song texts suitable for the occasion. He started his songs very well. And, his wife, banaChibuye, who always accompanied him as his helper (kampenga) took over the solo line clearly and loudly. Furthermore, his dancing, though not too varied, was entertaining and showed great presence.

Tensions

Interpretation of music in Zambia: texts in context, introduction.

The use of the Ipupo for healing

As we saw above, problem solving was becoming part of the Ipupo in the 1980s. Moreover, its form was influenced by the Cibombe introduced during the 1970s with the rise of Mwami. The Ipupo was a ritual with many attendees. Chalebaila and, somewhat less convinced, bamukaNdubeni wanted to use its hotness for healing and problem solving.

Pressure on Ciwila mediums

Though this rise led to a resurgence of Ciwila possession, the grown need for kucitila, the individualisation of kulila, the de-ritualisation of kwilimuna and the despiritualisation of kwangala put the role of the Ciwila ing’omba under pressure. Only great fya kusala expression and success could keep the Ciwila ing’omba, like Kansenkele, active.
It is not unlikely that a comparable pressure also played a role for the cinsengwe ing’omba in the problem-ridden, and therefore kucitila-needing, first forty years of the 20th century. They even ‘forbade’ the use of the drums for their music, presumably to make a clear distinction with the Ciwila and Moba cult-of-affliction possessed that used drums for their music.

Tensions around Kansenkele

Kansenkele did not like more than one or two other dancers, and certainly not the lesser dancers, to perform at the same time as he did. This attitude led to tensions with other possessed, of course.
He did not visit this part of Chibale chiefdom very often because the major shing’anga of the whole area, bamukaNdubeni and Chalebaila, lived there. This caused frictions at Ipupo as to the correct way of drumming, the preponderance of lesser dancers –patients of the two shing’anga– and the use of Ipupo for other purposes.
The deceased for whom the Ipupo was held was his grandmother (mother’s mother). Therefore, he could not refuse the invitation by the relatives of banaNshimbi to come.

Text of the 69th song of the Ipupo at banaNshimbi’s, a Ciwila song brought by Kansenkele.

Fwebo Cililo twalonda
Owelele Cibombe bakonkele kwa naChibuye capwa nomba mama
Fwebo kulila twalonda
Fwe calaula Cibombe bakonkele kwa naChibuye capwa nomba mama

We came here for a mourning ritual
Owelele the healing ritual they were making out of it at banaNshimbi’s has come to an end now, mama
We came here to mourn
We the possession dancers, the Cibombe they were making out of it at banaNshimbi’s has come to an end now, mama

After hours of hard work, Kansenkele has managed to get the upper hand at this Ipupo. Therefore, he publicly presents the observation that the remaining people (the ‘we’ in this song) are the ones who disagree with using an Ipupo for healing purposes. The audience/chorus takes over the song fervently, a sign of their agreement with his observation.

Interpretation of music in Zambia: texts in context, introduction. Comments on the songs at this Ipupo are based on conversations after the Ipupo with banaNshimbi and the three protagonists and on knowledge gained by Basil Chisonta and the author throughout the research.
For the sake of clarity, we will tell the story of this Ipupo in the present tense.

Continue to the next article in this series about the first songs of the Ipupo. I will use these first songs to introduce the reader to some important aspects of music at Ipupo.

IJzermans, Jan J. (2025) Amalimba. Music and related dance, text & ritual in one African region. https://amalimba.org/interpretation-of-music-in-zambia-texts-in-context-introduction/

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