Chibale Zambia: possession cult groups

History of the possession cult groups

Chibale Zambia: possession cult groups. Most spirit-possessed individuals organise themselves into cult groups. In this article, we describe the composition of these groups and their history over the past century.

Throughout history, the association of these groups has evolved from the local, central cults to more peripheral cults of affliction, albeit with some central functionalities.
In the past, one or two Kaluwe mediums formed the core of a hunting group. Similarly, one or more Ciwila mediums led a music and/or dance group that traveled the area. In the beginning of the previous century, cult of affliction groups emerged around the rare, prominent Mashabe shing’anga and around minor, that is Kaluwe or Moba, shing’anga. These groups may also have included some Ciwila and Kaluwe possessed.
During the Fetulo period, these groups disappeared.
In the 1980s and later, the Mwami-possessed, most of the Ciwila-possessed and some of the Kaluwe-possessed were organised into cult of affliction groups. Only the few Ciwila and Kaluwe mediums who, due to their success, could situate their mediumship within the framework of the older local cults were not members of a possession cult group.
Currently, fewer Mwami possession cult groups are active in Chibale. Some Kaluwe mediums who are hunters themselves, still work in cooperative hunting groups, performing the ritual functions necessary for successful hunting. A few Ciwila mediums (ing’omba) operate solo. They are invited for Cililo, Ipupo, and cultural heritage occasions.

Composition of the possession cult groups

Chibale Zambia: possession cult groups. A shing’anga is the leader of the cult group. He or she has healed the members of the group.¹The word shing’anga requires further explanation. Anyone who is able to heal or to solve problems is called a shing’anga. Thus, the herbalist who treats minor illnesses, and the diviner who diagnoses minor problems, are called shing’anga. However, the exceptional person capable of healing madness or other serious illnesses and problems is also called a shing’anga. When comparing them, the former shing’anga are referred to as ‘minor’ (munini), and the latter as ‘big’ (mukalamba). In the 1980s, a few of the latter were so prominent that they were also called ‘big’ when not comparing them with others. On this website, shing’anga refers to a spirit-possessed healer and cult leader. Anyone suffering from possession illness or another serious illness can become a member of the cult group.
The possession cult groups are composed of a small number of patients with possession illness, called mwana (‘children’) -people who are in the process of learning how to accommodate the possessing spirit; ten to fifty adepts (initiated spirit-possessed); zero to two apprentice shing’anga (mwanang’anga); and the shing’anga. The latter organises most and leads all of the gatherings of the cult group. He treats people suffering from possession illness, as well as those inflicted by other serious (‘complicated’) illnesses or misfortune, such as barrenness, madness, and afflictions caused by witchcraft. For less serious (‘simple’) illnesses people visit the local Rural Health Centre, where conventional Western healing methods are used. In the 1980s, the shing’anga and the Rural Health Centre referred certain types of patients to each other.

Rituals of the possession cult groups

Chibale Zambia: possession cult groups. Group contacts occur during and around the rituals, called Cibombe, that the shing’anga organises or that are organised under her guidance. The ritual can be directed towards a special member of the group, all members of the group, or in honour of the spirits possessing the shing’anga. Certain other patients or ex-patients, notably women who were barren and have had a child after treatment by the shing’anga, are more or less loosely connected to the group. Apart from the group contacts for rituals, a member can visit the shing’anga for personal advice or treatment.
In the 1980s, a clear relationship existed between the success a person had during the possession rituals in dancing and in bringing songs, and the importance of that person’s role in the cult group and the rituals it organised.