Songs and dances in Zambia: cinsengwe

Songs and dances in Zambia: cinsengwe. From a historical point of view, the cinsengwe is very important. It was the main genre of the old, local cults.

This article has three main subjects. The meanings of the name cinsengwe in Chibale in the last 120 years. The relatively well-documented use of the name in the Lala and adjacent regions in the past century. And the place of the cinsengwe in Chibale and the Lala region.

The meaning of the term cinsengwe

In the course of time the number of meanings of the term cinsengwe increased while the items that the term referred to changed. I will first discuss the different ways in which this term has been used in the 20th century.

1. It was the main genre of the old local, central cults, the kupupa song genre.
With the regaining of independence of hunting in the Mapunde period and the disappearance of other arts, like iron smelting, that needed a lot of giving to the mpanga, the songs came to be known as ‘hunting songs’¹A set of them can be found in Stefaniszyn (1951) and Stefaniszyn (1974).. Cinsengwe are also used for mourning rituals, the other rituals of great importance for the exchange relation with the mpanga. Listen to Song 106.

2. A special subset of this giving to the mpanga song repertoire is formed by the repertoire left by the famous ing’omba sha cinsengwe of the first half of the previous century.

3. In the 1930s Kambolemo of Koni village, after an abduction to the mpanga, came up with a way to play the cinsengwe with drum accompaniment. It was popular as a social dance for a few years. This may indicate that in the 1930s part of the kupupa song repertoire was little used anymore. Possibly the ritual setting in which it had been used in the period before that had fallen into disuse. This part of the repertoire then was introduced in another domain of gatherings, the Cila, that was still alive in that time.

Instrumental accompaniment to cinsengwe

Songs and dances in Zambia: cinsengwe. The instrumental accompaniment depends on the context in which the cinsengwe is/was used. It can be the ilimba ensemble (hunting rituals, beer parties, identity/cultural heritage occasions), the drum ensemble including (dance) idiophones (rituals where mediums sing and dance), iron idiophones possibly with one drum (mourning rituals), the ing’omba misebe ensemble (commemorative beer parties), and the drum ensemble (beer parties, social dances). Apart from that, cinsengwe can be played at small-scale occasions with any other instrumental accompaniment or with none.

Song 29

A cinsengwe connected with hunting, sung by Mika Mwape Chungwa, 1986.²Also in Stefaniszyn (1974: 106).

Text of Song 29 ∵ The big game with horns

Kamulonda/Konkeni mungulube na ne nkonkemo mpelembe
Icinama icamasengo fwe ciliwene kulonda

You (go and) follow the warthog’s tracks and I will follow the roan antelope
The big game with horns for us is good to follow

Hunting animals with horns is nicer. They are bigger, they give easier tracks, they run and do not hide in places with thorns etc.

Decline of the cinsengwe

Songs and dances in Zambia: cinsengwe. In the Fetulo period (coming up of christian cults and increase of migrant labour) kupupa was done less often. The knowledge of cinsengwe and kupupa had declined much when the coming of Mwami possession led to a revaluation of old knowledge. In the 1980s and later, terms are often used without much knowledge. Cinsengwe means something like: the ing’omba repertoire, all possession songs, all songs with ilimba accompaniment, all hunting songs or a special type of hunting song, all mourning songs or a special type of mourning song, or even all old songs. And lastly, people can be found who say that the cinsengwe was only a social dance song.

Sources on the cinsengwe

Songs and dances in Zambia: cinsengwe. Cinsengwe was the main genre of the old local cults. In the Congo and the Ambo part (southern) of the Lala region and in the Lamba region, cinsengwe was a song type used at hunting rituals and feasts and at mourning rituals.

Cinsengwe in other areas within the Lala region

For the south Lala region Stefaniszyn³Stefaniszyn (1951) and Stefaniszyn (1974). gives annotated transcriptions of the texts of 34 cinsengwe, “the bulk of the Ambo hunting songs”. According to Stefaniszyn⁴Stefaniszyn (1951: 1,2). the cinsengwe is especially connected to hunting and beer parties.
“The authors are unknown, nobody composes new songs but only these traditional songs are sung. They are sung at the ordinary beer parties, at hunting feasts, at the sacrificial beer for the successful hunt or when the hunter being unlucky and discouraged sings them alone or with others at night before the hunt. A hunter may also dance, at hunting festivals, with a gun, horns, animal skull or a tail, to the accompaniment of these songs. Such dance is also called cinsengwe. The songs are sung in antiphony and largely recitando, the rhythm playing a major part and the melody being of minor consequence. For accompaniment axe-blades struck against the stones are used, gourd drums [presumably ilimba] and rattles made of basket-bag filled with pebbles.”
Only at one place Stefaniszyn⁵Stefaniszyn (1964: 81). mentions the cinsengwe as being used at funerals. “To dream of a great amount of tobacco means a funeral because much tobacco is distributed to people who dance cinsengwe at the funeral beer party”.

For the Congo part of the Lala region Lambo⁶Lambo (1945: 337). mentions a dance called Cisengwe. Hunters joined by professional dancers called abayambo dance it for Kaluwe in front of the hunter’s shrine.
For the parts of the Lamba-Lala regions in Congo Collard⁷Collard (1920:70). mentions cinsengwe as related to the joyful gathering with dancing after a successful hunt.

Cinsengwe in the Kaonde-Lamba-Lenje area

Songs and dances in Zambia: cinsengwe. Like the names of important spirits Mulenga (Mulenga wa Mpanga), Kaluwe, Mushili Mfumu, Lucele (Lucele Ng‘anga), and Moba, most names of old song and dance types are widespread and occur in approximately the same large area. This spread indicates exchanges in that large area of names, texts, dances and musango for the periods before as well as after the migration labour started. Mensah⁸Mensah (1970a). gives examples of this for Zumaile village in the Nsenga region. Dances or songs of central religious importance for one group can live the short life of a social dance novelty in another group. Although not with exactly the same musical characteristics as in the original group. For instance, there can have been a switch from a light to a heavy version.

In the Lamba region in the first quarter of the previous century⁹Doke (1927: 525f & 1931: 182f, 235f, 256f, 323f, 359). cinsengwe, as seen in Elaboration J, is related to hunting and mourning rituals, possibly led by Bayambo mediums, and to a lesser extent to other occasions related to the local cults and beer parties. The cinsengwe was composed by “[Bayambo who] follow the profession of composing nyimbo sha cinsengwe, songs of the chase, and of singing and dancing in the cinsengwe dances”.¹⁰Doke (1931: 256). The dance was held in honour of Kaluwe when danced by hunters while the Bayambo mediums danced it in honour of the spirits that possessed them. It was also danced during beer-drinking in honour of the departed spirits during mourning ceremonies.¹¹Doke (1931: 359).

For the Lenje region Mensah describes one of the examples he gives as a “recreational song (cinsengwe) of the Lenje”.¹²Mensah (1970b: 115).

Cinsengwe in other adjacent regions

For the Nsenga and Soli regions: “One ancient, and perhaps symbolical, instrumental accompaniment is the tapping of the hoe blade by another piece of iron such as an axe blade. The use of this instrument seems to be restricted to funeral dances and is heard in the Chisengwe funeral dance of the Nsenga and Soli and the same dance known as Nganganga among the Chikunda”.¹²Brelsford (1948: 25).
For the Nsenga region: “Nor have I examples of percussion instruments in the form of hoes being struck, called nsengwe, or maize being rattled on a plate. I never heard a dance of spirit possession (mpanda, nzamba, or mashabi), but was told that the melodies and rhythms are very similar to those of the puberty ritual. Master-drummers use the same set of drums for both types of music”.¹³Blacking (1962: 4).[/mfn]

The place of cinsengwe in Chibale and the Lala region

Songs and dances in Zambia: cinsengwe. Cinsengwe was the main genre of the old local cults. So, for a fairly large area the cinsengwe served as hunting and mourning (‘eating and dying’) song and dance. And new versions were brought by mediums. Chibale fits into this picture, though with a significant difference. In the Lamba region there was one possession type that provided all the new cinsengwe for hunting and for mourning. Whereas in Chibale, and in the Congo and Ambo part of the Lala region as well, there are two possession types, Kaluwe and Ciwila (including the ing’omba), for these two works. It is striking though, that also in Chibale for mourning and hunting songs one single general name is used.

The following quotation throws another light on this:

Cinsengwe before hunting and fishing, or at beer parties, are kwilimuna: rejoicing about ishuko. To avert ishamo the cinsengwe texts should be mournful.
Mika Mwape Chungwa ∵ personal communication, 1986.

Mourning and rejoicing

Songs and dances in Zambia: cinsengwe. Just as we see with the gathering of honey, mournful texts and mournful performance were normal and necessary when being outside of the village on a hunting trip before a kill was made. In the village the hunting songs were rejoicing (kwilimuna). In the case of hunting ishamo, this would be reversed. We hypothesise that a shift in religion, presumably also involving the burying of the dead outside of the village, the need to mourn for certain individuals (specialists) and/or a change in the interpretation of ishamo, made the singing of mourning songs in the village necessary without the purpose of averting hunting ishamo. As this could not be done by Kaluwe mediums or the dominance of the newer ancestral cult did not allow them to do this, the performing of songs, and the bringing of new texts suitable for the occasion, for mourning rituals ‘split off’ into Ciwila possession.

The question then rises whether Ciwila and Kaluwe brought different kinds of cinsengwe or not? The general answer given to this question was that the texts differed. For the rest, they resembled each other ‘since both are from the mulundu’, the higher land between rivers. Mwami, cimbwasa and Cisungu songs ‘come from the river’. See an analysis of the differences.

Performance of mediums and specialists

Songs and dances in Zambia: cinsengwe. This brings us to the last important aspect of cinsengwe. New songs and dances and powerful performances of existing ones were brought by mediums. Non-possessed specialists could use these solo in imitation at the rituals of their specialism. As seen above in the quotation of Doke¹⁴Doke (1931: 359)., this held for the hunting ritual.
It also held for the Cisungu (girls’ initiation) where the instructress of the girl (nacimbusa) danced the cimbwasa solo. New cimbwasa and powerful performances of existing ones could only be brought by mediums. According to Doke¹⁵Doke (1931: 254, 266). this was done by Mwami mediums and also by Moba mediums. Note the resemblance of the terms nacimbusa: instructress of the girl, cimbwasa: girls’ initiation and healing possession solo dancing, and Vimbuza: eastern Province healing possession.
At mourning rituals the situation is different since there are no non-possessed specialists involved. Again we can find interesting parallels with the Lamba region: “The songs used at the malilo (mourning rites) are generally chosen from the cinsengwe (hunting songs); others are composed by the abayambo”.¹⁶Doke (1931: 182).

It is likely that here the same situation is described as that found in Chibale. At mourning rituals already existing mourning songs are chosen from the cinsengwe repertoire while Ciwila mediums bring the new cinsengwe songs necessary at each, or at least at each important, mourning ritual and thus enlarge the repertoire.

Conclusion

Songs and dances in Zambia: cinsengwe. I have used information about the Lamba region from the first quarter of the previous century to explain some things about the cinsengwe, to show that the Chibale situation in the 1980s presumably was not an isolated one, and to illustrate the historical importance of the cinsengwe.

Nowadays, the cinsengwe is not generally known nor understood. The term is only used with consistency by a few older people and mediums.

Read also the article about the cinsengwe ing’omba.