Songs and dances in Zambia: historical basis

Songs and dances in Zambia: historical basis. We have seen that people in Chibale categorise songs and dances according to their genre, characteristics, or groupings. In most cases, the underlying reason for a particular classification of a song is its purpose. And, related to that, the occasion(s) at which people sing it. Important exceptions are the genre names that do not seem to refer to purpose or occasion by themselves. Therefore, it is interesting to see whether it is possible to map purpose, occasion and name in one overview.
In our attempt to do so, we stumble across some salient aspects of Chibale music that we present below.¹Bantje (1978: 17) articulates the trouble he had obtaining an overview of music and dance in the Kaonde region: “Equally confusing is the fact that, while belonging specifically to a certain situation or ritual, they [dances] may be equally performed at any other occasion. This is also true for the songs”. And: “There is much discrepancy in the few references to these dances in literature (cf. Anley 1926, Melland 1967). The reasons may be: insufficient insight of the observers, the fact that these dances vary from region to region, the fact that different groups use identical names for different dances.”

Figure D: Overview of the relations between the major older song genres
and the domains, types of spirit possession, purposes and occasions.

Songs and dances in Zambia: historical basis. Possession spirits bring the major old song genres. Social dance songs can be adaptations of these songs or are obtained through abduction of a person into the mpanga. Or, they are introduced from outside, for example kalindula.

We present this overview with due reserve. We use an idealised, stereotyped representation of the relations between domains, types of spirit possession, purposes, occasions and major old song genres. These relations are as people in Chibale in the 1980s, conceived them to have been in the past. Here we will discuss the ifs and buts.

Mediums, specialists and laymen

Songs and dances in Zambia: historical basis. In the article The owner of the song we discuss the three types of performers that can start a song. And the consequences this has for its classification. When a Kaluwe medium performs, the song and dance are kaluwe (or cinsengwe). When a specialist hunter performs, it is ilimbalakata. And when a layman would perform, it is cilaila. However, the layman would never perform when a medium or specialist would be present. People did cilaila only at small-scale occasions and Beers.
A medium can also be a specialist. A Kaluwe medium being a hunter, a Ciwila medium being an ing’omba and a Mwami medium being a shing’anga. Conversely, the specialist does not have to be a medium: the great hunter, the nacimbusa or the ‘non-possessed’ shing’anga. At a laymen’s occasion, a medium or specialist could be present, for instance an ing’omba at a Beer.

Purposes and occasions

The layman, the specialist, and the medium have different purposes. Therefore, their songs and dances are classified differently. As discussed, these different purposes can be pursued at different, more or less specialised occasions. But, in some cases also at the same occasion. Therefore, purpose is more essential than occasion. The scale of an occasion does not directly relate to mediums and specialists. Their gatherings with music can be small-scale and large-scale. From the other side, a layman will not perform at a large-scale occasion except Beers.

Spirit possession and song genre

A possible bias of the overview is that the majority of those who contributed were influential mediums.
On the other hand, it is not very surprising that the influential mediums knew most about music. First of all, it was their trade. There was no one who took an interest in Chibale music outside of its use, say as a local culturographer. Secondly, within the heterogeneity in Chibale part of the people trusted this work to the mediums. The other part did not care much about (the classification of) Chibale music. Upheavals in history may have caused breaks in the continuity, also in the classification of music. Since the possession cults more or less served to provide a sense of continuity, it was logical that they were the ones trying to come up with a classification with historical roots.

Problem solving and healing in the past

Songs and dances in Zambia: historical basis. The role of Mwami is not clear as healing possession called Mwami was of very recent origin in the 1980s. Before the arrival of Mwami, mediums also solved problems and healed, but not as their main purpose. The old type of spirit possession Mashabe presumably dealt with problem solving and healing, but it was very uncommon in the 20th century. Compare Doke²Doke (1931: 256).: in the Lamba region Moba seems to have replaced Mashabe around 1915.
In the past, problem solving and healing were not related to spirit possession like they were in the 1980s. Problem solving as a specialism was rare, it was a consequence of the other work a medium did. People interpreted the power of a certain Kaluwe medium in preventing (kwilimuna) and solving hunting problems (kucitila) as a sign of a more general problem solving power. Though Ciwila mediums were not directed toward problem solving/ healing but toward commemoration, especially mourning (kulila) and the stopping of mourning (kwangala, opening up/clearing the mind and the heart)³Another way of conceiving this double work is that of ‘ritualising’ and ‘deritualising’ an occasion or period., people saw their power to heat the ritual with singing, dancing and composing as a sign of the power to heat other occasions, the result of which would prevent or solve a problem.

After the coming of Mwami in the 1970s many witnessed the use of Cisungu songs and ritual elements in the problem-solving rituals and diagnostic sessions. In the years before the coming of Mwami possession music and ritual were marginal. This then could explain why people attributed the blue rows in the overview so readily to Mwami.

Origins of the female repertoire

Songs and dances in Zambia: historical basis. No indication exists that in the past the repertoires for Cisungu and Pa kwisha were extended with new songs brought by a specific possession type. Let us examine the possible reasons for extension of a repertoire. The repertoire is extended by human composers, by abduction (kuwilwa fya kubuka) of a human by spirits who during the abduction teach him one or more new songs, it is derived from possession music, or it is borrowed from other regions.

In the 1980s, composition of music by humans was a concept beyond comprehension for most people in Chibale, certainly when referring to music originating from Chibale.

No one could remember an instance of female repertoire extension through abduction by spirits.

There is no recollection or indication that a possession type has existed that produced this type of song. Derivation from Kaluwe and, especially, Ciwila repertoire is likely in the way that a female cilaila performance making these songs heavier, possibly with some changes in the text, could lead to an extension of the female repertoire.

Borrowing from other regions is a long tradition. In Chibale, people use many names for similar genres of female music. These names occurred in the regions around Chibale though they might have different values in different regions. An important song in one region could be ‘just a song’ in another region. Or, a switch from ritual song to social dance song or vice versa might occur. See the article on women’s music.

Genre names and occasions

Especially older people sometimes use a genre name as the name for an occasion. For instance, ilimbalakata as a festive occasion with beer originally connected to hunting. Or they connect genre name and occasion. For instance, cimbwasa ca ciwombe (the cimbwasa ritual of connecting to the spirits). Or cinsengwe ca cililo (cinsengwe of cililo mourning).
In Chibale, the differentiation of the various purposes of using music and the ownership of its use are central. Occasions generally aim at a certain use and ownership of use of music.
Let’s suppose that, in former days, occasions and their music had the same names. Later on, an occasion has disappeared while its music is still there. Now, people will consider that name the genre name of that music. Presumably, the same happened in the surrounding areas. From these areas music was taken over with the ‘genre name’ that was ‘left’ for that music, stemming from a certain occasion/purpose of use and/or ownership of use.
If this is the case, genre names have a disadvantage. They obscure the more fundamental process of categorising music based on its purpose (occasion) and ownership of use.

A historical basis of Chibale song classification

With these ifs and buts in mind, we can use the overview in Figure D as a historical basis of the song repertoire in Chibale.