Chibale Zambia: spirit possession

Chibale Zambia: spirit possession. Historically, spirit possession played a significant role in Chibale religion. Over time, its orientation shifted from more central to more peripheral.

In 1985, Chalebaila, one of the prominent shing’anga, said: “Possession has become like strong beer. Everybody is getting drunk.” At that time, spirit possession was important in Chibale. It had risen in the 1970s and started waning in the 1990s. After that, it held a more marginal status.

Many articles on this site cover spirit possession and its related music, dance, texts, and rituals. For a list, click here.

Persons who are possessed by one or more spirits are called ngwilwa or baciwila¹Both words are derived from the verb -wa: to fall; -wila: to fall upon, and -wilwa: to be fallen upon. BaCiwila: those who have to do with something that falls upon them. Ngwilwa: those who have been fallen upon., both when in the actual state of being possessed and when in a normal state.

Definitions

Van Binsbergen’s²Van Binsbergen (1979: 104, 106). definitions of possession and mediumship are applicable to the situation in Chibale.

Possession or spirit possession: a particular state of an individual, regarded, by himself and his social environment, as being exceptionally closely associated with, and exceptionally strongly dominated by, entities other than ordinary living human beings.

Mediumship or spirit mediumship: a state of possession involving the transmission by the spirit-possessed of messages supposed to derive from the possessing agent.

Both concepts are interpretations of certain states of individuals. The difference between the two lies in the emphasis on communication in mediumship. On this site, the word medium refers to the spirit-possessed who, in addition to other activities, sing and dance. The word possession patients³In ciLala, mwana (child) or mwana we lyanga (child of medicine). is used for those who are at the beginning of being spirit-possessed and for the unhappily (= unsuccessful) spirit-possessed. When referring to both medium and mwana, we use the word ‘spirit-possessed’.

A term often used in connection with possession is ‘cult of affliction’ which van Binsbergen (1979: 256) defines as follows:

A cult of affliction is a religious subsystem in which misfortune is culturally interpreted in terms of exceptionally strong domination by a specific non-human agent, and attempts are made to remove the misfortune by having the afflicted join the cult venerating that specific agent.

This definition, however, does not fully cover the situation in Chibale. It may better fit possession cults in western Zambia, where a specific agent causes a specific misfortune, as described by Turner and White.

The situation in Chibale

Chibale Zambia: spirit possession. In Chibale, specific symptoms in the possession illness are not signs of a specific type of possession. Nor is the removal of the misfortune, in Chibale the possession illness, the sole purpose of the cult. They interpret illness and other misfortune of the spirit-possessed as signs of poor communication between the spirit-possessed and the possessing spirit. The aim is to reach and maintain kumfwana, mutual understanding between the spirit-possessed and the possessing spirit. In this way, the latter can work properly through the spirit-possessed. Once kumfwana is reached, the spirit-possessed, as a medium, can help others in hunting, healing, or singing and dancing. Thus, the cult of affliction also fulfils functions of the old local central cults. On a personal level, it provides protection against illness, witchcraft, and other possible dangers. And, for the mediums, it can provide income.
On this site, we use the term cult of affliction in this way: a cult rooted in (the remnants of) older local cults that combines helping individuals to overcome the problem of hosting a possessing spirit with helping the community in hunting, healing, and/or music and dance. In literature, we often see a restriction to the realm of healing for spirit possession and certainly for cults of affliction. In Chibale, we see that individual cult group members may be focused on solving the problem of hosting their possessing spirit(s), but that the mediums connected to the cult group have a larger significance for problem-solving, important communal work, and singing and dancing.⁴See also Van Dijk, Reis & Spierenburg (2000:6).

Music, state of possession and trance

Contrary to the situation in many parts of the world, music does not induce the actual state of being possessed. It does play a role in crisis-trance in non-possessed and unsuccessful spirit-possessed. The experienced spirit-possessed, however, go through the process of kuseluka: to have the spirits descend upon them. Although the spirits sing through the spirit-possessed after they have ‘arrived’, music plays no role in their arrival.
After the kuseluka, the human being (muntu) is in the state of kwililwa (to be descended upon). In this state, the spirit-possessed have a different feeling of reality. They describe this in various ways. “I felt heavy”, “I felt protected”, “I felt surrounded” or “I felt hot in the chest”. People who have experienced a crisis trance describe that state differently. “I was swept away”, “I felt a whirlwind inside of me” or “I was blown by a strong wind”. Wind is an often-used metaphor for possessing spirits.

There were more nature spirits (cibanda) in former days. They could more easily block the work of the spirit-possessed, for instance by drumming in the hills. Nowadays, they are still as fierce, but in the minority. The population growth led to a rise in the number of ancestral spirits (mupashi). Before that, the ancestral spirits always had to plead with the nature spirits. Then, an agreement was reached between the nature spirits and the ancestral spirits to let the latter do their work with the spirit-possessed.
Mika Mwape Chungwa ∵ personal communication, 1986.

An explanation for why the number of spirit-possessed increased in the 1970s and the 1980s.

Spirit possession and trance

Chibale Zambia: spirit possession. One should not confuse possession behaviour with behaviour related to trance. Trance refers to a form of altered state of consciousness. Trance with ‘crisis’ as one of its characteristics⁵See Rouget (1985: 11). is a possible but not necessary part of possession behaviour. In Chibale, a ritual lasting the whole night may not see any of the mediums present go into crisis-trance. With experienced spirit-possessed, this trance is rare at public rituals. It occurs only during the transition from a state of good communication to one of bad communication, and vice versa: a change in kumfwana between spirit-possessed and possessing spirit. Temporary unconsciousness of the spirit-possessed occurs. The spirits may use this to communicate with the attendants of that spirit-possessed through speech.
Compared with other literature on spirit possession in Africa, where the terms trance, ecstasy and possession (behaviour) may be used interchangeably⁶Note that even the title and subtitle of a valuable book like Rouget’s (1985) suggest the inseparability of the two notions: Music and trance. A theory of the relations between music and possession., the central Zambian form of possession behaviour seems to be exceptional.

Spirit possession and hard times

Chibale Zambia: spirit possession. Beattie & Middleton and van Binsbergen⁷Beattie & Middleton (1969: xxix) and van Binsbergen (1979: 230) show that possession cults are important in the process of adaptation to the consequences of change. This is clearly also the case in Chibale. One could say that possession facilitates a conservative change. The number of (cult of affliction) spirit-possessed seems related to the extent of the difficulties of the time period. The possession cult leaders hold similar opinions on this, see below.

People do no longer follow certain rules of life (kusunga mishila). That is why there is much possession today as the spirits want to protect the people. A completely pure generation would have no possession, no witchcraft, and no illness. Possession arises when a society begins to become impure.
BanaSibilu ∵ personal communication, 1985.

Once started, the possession can last for a significant part of the person’s life and dramatically influence its course. Read the short story about Chisenga becoming a spirit-possessed.
Spirits do not choose particular individuals for possession. More women are spirit-possessed, because they run a greater risk of becoming ‘stained’ than men. Women are ‘closer to the mpanga‘ and therefore need more help. Secondly, the ones singing the chorus at the gatherings where the spirit-possessed sing and dance are mainly women. Frequently visiting these gatherings to sing makes one more ‘open’ to possession. Spirits purposely choose the area where the spirit-possessed live. According to the shing’anga, possession increases where and when crisis and impurity increase.

The relation between possession cults and the three older local, central cults

Chibale Zambia: spirit possession. The three major types of spirit possession found in Chibale are related to the three local, central cults. Kaluwe possession is linked to the mpanga cult, Ciwila possession to the ancestral cult, and Mwami possession to the chiefly cult. Possession types related to christian cults that arose in other parts of Zambia never occurred in Chibale.

Possession relates to all work of communal interest involving an exchange with nature, the mpanga. More specifically, it concerns work that carries a risk of staining. The mediums are considered communication channels between the village and the spirits residing in the mpanga (mipashi yaikala mu mpanga).

The three types of work the spirits help in are:
Important productive work, notably hunting: Kaluwe.
Singing and dancing and the bringing of new songs: Ciwila.
Solving problems, including healing: Mwami.

This tripartition of important work occurs more often in South Central Africa. The three kinds of associations found in the Luba region (southern Congo), for instance, were also for hunting, for singing & dancing, and for healing.⁸Verhulpen (1936: 172-174). The three types were also found in the Lamba region. “In the previous chapter we dealt with three distinct professions, those of the moba [singing & dancing], the umuyambo [hunting], and the mukamwami [healing and problem-solving], professions of considerable status in the tribe, professions which carry with them considerable authority and no little opportunity of acquiring wealth. These professions are the result of spirit possession, ukuwilwa; those concerned have no choice –at least, they are believed to have no choice– in the taking up of their profession.”⁹Doke (1931:269).

Exchange relation

The exchange with the mpanga has two directions: obtaining and giving. Obtaining products and ideas, and giving acknowledgement and the dead. All three possession types are concerned with both actions, but there is a difference in emphasis. Possession for hunting and possession for problem-solving are for obtaining (for the benefit of all). However, they also take care of the necessary giving to the mpanga connected to their work through music and dance. Ciwila possession is for giving to the mpanga for the benefit of all through singing and dancing. On the other hand, their acquiring new songs is obtaining.

The three possession types (musango wa kuwilwa) differ not only in the specialism they guide or practise. They differ in their form of organisation, melody shape, language, subjects of song texts, tonal material, drum patterns, styles of dancing, attire and attributes, number and type of life rules, and type and origin of the possessing spirits.
In the differences that the general public in Chibale made between the various types of possession music and dance play a minor role.

Spirit possession music and rituals

A number of articles on this site treat possession music and/or rituals where spirit-possessed perform in more detail.

Spirit possession music genres: kaluwe, ciwila, mwami, moba, and mashabe.

The worldview of the possession cult leaders.

Rituals at which the spirit-possessed perform: rituals of rejoicing, rituals of mourning and rituals of problem-solving.

A theory about the music of the local and possession cults.

The importance and interpretation and application of possession song texts.

The need to be popular.

And, the relation between success in music and success in important work.