Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared

Similar purposes, different performances

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. “All Cibombe ca cisungu are the same (cimo cine)” is often said during discussions about the differences between the actual performances of two Cibombe ca cisungu. Or even: “All Cibombe are the same (cimo cine).” The Cibombe share structural characteristics, but they are performed differently between the cult groups, that is between the big shing’anga. Also the performances of two Cibombe of one shing’anga are different. The best general translation of cimo cine is in essence the same. The essence of a Cibombe is its purpose – that is to be fulfilled by an appropriate performance. So, cimo cine here means fulfilling the same purpose. When talking about similarities in music, people also use the concept cimo cine, see Differentiating between songs. Important when talking about differences is the distinction between structural and performative aspects of songs and of dances.

The differences in the performances suitable for fulfilling the purpose of the Cibombe are related to the beliefs of the shing’anga, the circumstances and the need to keep the rituals interesting for the audience to participate in them.
By using photos, we will illustrate the differences among four similar elements in three Cibombe ca cisungu from late 1985. They show performative differences as to the dance circle, the events surrounding the coming in of the initiates, the treatment of the initiates and the first performance by the initiates.

The dance circle

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. To mark the dance circle for the Cibombe the organiser often draws a circle with mealie meal. These circles can vary in form: a mere circle, a circle with a cross, a double circle, a double circle with a cross. In rare occasions the circle is marked or fenced with sticks. There can be zero, one or sometimes two dots somewhere in the circle. This marks the spot where herbs will be burnt, for purification.
In Photo 31, we see that this spot is the middle of the cross, with the yet unburnt herbs on it. In Photo 32, we find the spot at the right in the middle circle, covered by the ashes of burnt herbs.

The initiates before they are brought into the dance circle

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. Before the initiate or initiates are brought into the dance circle, they are seated or lying on the ground in a house near the dance circle. In this house, a few members of the cult group sing songs, different from the songs that are going on in the dance circle. Occasionally, the shing’anga comes by to see how things are going. Before that, at the Cibombe at Ngosa Bulangu’s, the two initiates formed the chorus for the songs the spirits sang through Ngosa Bulangu after the kuseluka.

The initiates enter the dance circle

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. At a certain moment in the first half of the Cibombe ca cisungu, the intiates are brought into the dance circle where already quite some singing, drumming and  dancing  have been going on.

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. The initiates are seated on the ground covered by a blanket. After some time, the blanket is drawn away uncovering the initiates.

The treatment of the initiates

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. Once uncovered, the initiates are treated while in the dance circle.

The first performance by the initiates

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. Now a crucial stage is reached for the ritual.
Will the initiates be able to bring a song and dance on their own? If so, the Cibombe is a success. If not, the participation in the Cibombe is seen as a a part of the healing/education of the possession patient and a successful initiation will have to be tried another time.

Convictions, circumstances and making it worth participating

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. As said above, differences in the performances to attain the purpose of the Cibombe are related to the convictions of the shing’anga, the circumstances and the need to keep the rituals interesting for the audience to participate in them.

Convictions

According to bamukaNkomesha (human name: banaNkunka), the initiate had to lay waiting in the house, not sit like at some other Cibombe, and the waiting house should be as close to the dance circle as possible. Other shing’anga found this not necessary.
Convictions about the appropriate performance of a Cibombe originate from the shing’anga who educated the shing’anga. They also are related to the type(s) of spirits that possess the shing’anga and the positioning that the shing’anga seeks. For instance, Chalebaila positioned himself as the one bringing in knowledge from a region where healing possession was much more common; he tended to emphasise the differences. BamukaNdubeni positioned herself much more as a mediator and stressed the usefulness for Chibale of this knowledge from outside.

‘The circumstances’

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. An example of ‘circumstances’. The initiates at the Cibombe ca cisungu at Maleveni were brought into the circle in the morning. After that they danced in the house, not in the circle, with the other adepts. The reason was that Chalebaila became sick during the evening, after the ritual had already started, and because the public was reacting half-heartedly to the music. The ritual went on until the next morning but it was never hot.
Maleveni lay some 40 kilometres from Chalebaila’s farm, so he worked outside of his area. He had brought along a whole entourage to make the ritual work. The result was that the audience/chorus reacted listlessly feeling that they were more or less invaded. Their reaction therefore was one of: ‘OK, if you are so great, show it, entertain us’. Furthermore, there were problems with the payments and there was no red clay, so the initiates were painted with white spots only.

‘Circumstances’ play a major role in the ritual

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. The circumstances play a major role in the performance of any ritual in Chibale. From a Chibale perspective, this is obvious. The starting point that only the purpose is essential gives a certain freedom in the performance. For others outside of Chibale, for instance the ones who assume that the proceedings of rituals are carved in stone, this may be less obvious. And they will be puzzled even more because in the rituals and feasts of Chibale meaning, or rather meanings, tend to be developed during the performance.
This is especially done through the song texts but other features can play a role as well. Readers with enough stamina can follow this in detail in the description of an Ipupo in which much more than the structure of the Ipupo and its performance, the sequence of song texts provided the meaning of it all. Many of the song texts react by following or opposing a theme that is becoming apparent in the song texts that have already been brought. In some cases, a song text comes with a new item or theme, enriching the mixture of themes that is already there. The public at Ipupo and Cibombe has a great influence on this by either taking over the chorus line enthusiastically and correctly, showing reluctance or not taking it over at all. In this way, they influence the development of themes and the mixture of themes.
So, calling it ‘the circumstances’ is an ethnocentrism, ‘opportunities providing leeway’ would be better. Or, ‘just the way things work in order to make the ritual effective’.

Make people participate well

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. The mediums are depending on the public/chorus for a performance that will have the ritual attain its goal. This chorus has to be either very experienced or enthusiastic enough to really contribute to the singing and thus to the drumming and dancing. For smaller rituals, the shing’anga have a small, experienced group of, often young, people living near their farms. But for larger rituals they are depending on people who will only contribute at a high level when they are enthused. So, providing some spectacle –needless to say: from a Chibale perspective- is necessary.

Gatherings with music in Zambia: possession rituals compared. In 1986, bamukaNdubeni organised a Cibombe ca ntongo for her cult group. In former days, a ritual like this would have been performed in the small circle of adepts and some of their family. However, to make it grand and to advertise her shing’angaship, she was in need of many participants who would also provide a good chorus to make the ritual hot which would serve its purpose.
One of the ways to do this was to provide free beer around midnight, like it was done at all Cibombe and Ipupo. But that attracted especially men while more than two thirds of the chorus are women. BamukaNdubeni’s speciality was to dramatise every element in the course of the ritual. For example, to receive the fresh sweet beer the adepts were lined up in a special way. At other Cibombe ca ntongo she used other, in her case always dramatic, ways of giving the beer.